terms.txt

binary						the base-2 numeral system, a binary digit consists of either a 0 or a 1,
							binary representation of integers is only provided by std::format,
							there is no iostream manipulator for binary
hexadecimal					the base-16 numeral system, a hexadecimal digit consists of digits 0-9, and letters A-F,
							there is also a manipulator for iostream that we can use to print and read hexadecimal
							integers: std::hex; and hexadecimal floats: std::hexfloat
							for std::format, we can use these formatting directives: {:x} for integers, {:a} for floats
octal						the base-8 numeral system, an octal digit consists of digits 0-7,
							there is an iostream manipulator to print octal integers: std::oct,
							there is an std::format formatting directive for octal integers: {:o}
getline()					function that reads characters from an input stream until it encounters the delimiter or end-of-file,
							takes two non-default parameters: 1) an istream 2) the string to put read into
							takes one default parameter: 3) a delimiter that defaults to '\n', it is discarded when reading
							returns the first argument, the istream given
character classification	characters can be classified, a character can be a digit, an alphabetic character, whitespace,
		  					hexadecimal digit, uppercase, lowercase, alphanumeric, control character, punctuation, printable,
							graphic character,
							cctype header contains functions that check a given character's classification
output formatting			a format that a type uses when printing,
	   						we can specify a format for our types when using the output operator '<<'
decimal						the base-10 numeral system, a digit consists of numbers 0-9,
							the default output format for integers and floats
line-oriented input			the strategy of reading input line-by-line and parsing or validating it later
defaultfloat				floating-point iostream manipulator, chooses fixed or scientific representation
							to most accurately represent the float given,
							precision is the total number of digits
manipulator					an object that manipulates istream or ostream objects' states
scientific					floating-point iostream manipulator that formats floats into scientific notation,
							precision is the number of digits after the decimal point
get()						istream member function that takes a reference to a character and reads data into it,
							returns the istream it is called on, doesn't ignore any whitespace, we have full control
							over the data we are reading
setprecision()				iostream manipulator that sets the precision for floating-point values
fixed						floating-point iostream manipulator that formats floats using fixed-point notation,
							precision is the number of digits after the decimal point
<<							operator used for ostream output operations, can be overloaded for user-defined types
>>							operator used for istream input operations, can be overloaded for used-defined types
bad()						stream state that indicates that something unexpected and serious happened,
							prevents from using the stream in this state
good()						stream state that indicates that there were no errors in the previous operation
ostream						type that deals with streams of output: std::cout for stdout, std::ofstream for file output,
							std::ostringstream for in-memory string output
buffer						a data structure that istream and ostream use to store the data they are operating on,
							to increase performance of their operations and to communicate with the operating system
ifstream					istream that reads from a file, needs a filename to open the file for reading,
							can be used the same way as std::cin, supports the same input operators, functions,
							implicitly closes the file when the object is destroyed
output device				a device that we can send data to, the operating system handles it through device drivers,
	   						the output library provides operations to access each output device through a common interface
clear()						iostream member function, when given no parameters, every error bit is removed,
							when given a parameter, it removes every error bit except for the given bit(s bitwise OR-ed)
input device				a device that can send data into our program, the operating system handles it through device drivers,
	  						the input library provides operations to access each input device through a common interface
output operator				'<<', ostreams can handle outputting built-in types, some library types have defined the output operator
							and we can define our own output operator for our classes with formatting
close()						member function we can call on behalf of file stream objects to explicitly close them,
							it is better if we rely on the automatic closing of the file when its scope ends, so that
							we prevent accessing a closed file stream
input operator				'>>', istreams can handle reading data into built-in types, some library types, and we can define
							our own input operators for our own types with format handling
stream state				stream flags that indicate errors or that there are no errors
device driver				the program that the operating system uses to handle input and output for devices,
	   						the input and output library provide abstractions for them so that programmers need not worry about them
iostream					a stream that can be used both for reading and writing: fstream for reading and writing files,
							stringstream for reading and writing in-memory strings
structured file				a file structured according to a file format's rules (e.g. HTML, XML, JSON)
eof()						iostream member function that checks whether the stream's eof bit is set: when the stream reads end-of-file
istream						deals with streams of input as characters and turns those characters into values of various types
terminator					when reading values, we can define a terminator that signals the end of the input stream instead of relying
							on the user passing EOF which can be hard to recover from
fail()						iostream member function that checks whether the stream's fail bit is set: when encountering an unexpected error,
							such as reading a wrong type of input for an object, we can set failbit also to signal format errors in formatted input
ofstream					ostream that writes data into files, needs a filename to open a file for writing, can be used the same way
							as std::cout, supports the same operations, functions, implicitly closes the file when goes out of scope and is destroyed
unget()						istream member function that puts the last read character back into the buffer without specifying what it last read
file						data usually on persistent storage that is a sequence of bytes numbered from 0 upward
open()						file stream member function that takes a std::string parameter for filename to open,
							better to use the file stream's constructor to avoid using uninitialized file streams
format()					function that takes a format string, and additional arguments to insert into the format string's curly braces,
							inspired by C's printf function, format is type-safe and extensible for user-defined types
							produces a string as output
tolower()					takes a character, returns a character that is either the original character or the lowercase version of that character
setw()						iostream manipulator that sets the field width for the next output operation
setfill()					iostream manipulator that sets the character that it will fill the empty space with
							(when we set a larger width than the value printed)
isdigit()					function that checks whether a given character classifies as a digit
isalpha()					function that checks whether a given character classifies as an alphabetic character