diff --git a/xrspatial/geotiff/_header.py b/xrspatial/geotiff/_header.py
index 1bcb68be..7a1492cc 100644
--- a/xrspatial/geotiff/_header.py
+++ b/xrspatial/geotiff/_header.py
@@ -15,6 +15,25 @@
     UNDEFINED,
 )
 
+# Caps for IFD entries that aren't pixel-data offset or byte-count
+# arrays. Pixel-data arrays (TileOffsets, StripOffsets, etc.) scale with
+# image dimensions and are exempt; metadata tags (DateTime, Software,
+# ImageDescription, GeoKeys, ColorMap when treated as pixel data, etc.)
+# should never come close to either bound. Two caps are enforced:
+#
+# - MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT bounds the *number of elements* the parser will
+#   allocate as a Python tuple. struct.unpack_from of N items produces a
+#   tuple of N PyLong objects; even at small per-element byte sizes,
+#   the heap cost is dominated by the tuple, not the bytes.
+# - MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES bounds the *value range read from the file*.
+#   This catches large-itemsize tags (DOUBLE = 8 bytes) where the count
+#   alone is misleading.
+#
+# Together they bound a single malformed entry's worst-case heap impact
+# to the lower of (~tens of MB tuple) and (1 MB raw bytes read).
+MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT = 100_000
+MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES = 1 << 18  # 256 KiB
+
 # Well-known TIFF tag IDs
 TAG_NEW_SUBFILE_TYPE = 254
 TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH = 256
@@ -451,6 +470,17 @@ def parse_ifd(data: bytes | memoryview, offset: int,
     inline_max = 8 if is_big else 4
     entries = {}
 
+    # Tags whose `count` legitimately scales with image size (one entry per
+    # strip / tile / colormap slot). These are exempt from MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT.
+    pixel_array_tags = {
+        TAG_STRIP_OFFSETS,
+        TAG_STRIP_BYTE_COUNTS,
+        TAG_TILE_OFFSETS,
+        TAG_TILE_BYTE_COUNTS,
+        TAG_COLORMAP,
+    }
+    data_len = len(data)
+
     for i in range(num_entries):
         eo = entry_offset + i * entry_size
 
@@ -468,6 +498,24 @@ def parse_ifd(data: bytes | memoryview, offset: int,
         type_size = TIFF_TYPE_SIZES.get(type_id, 1)
         total_size = count * type_size
 
+        # Reject absurd counts/sizes on non-pixel tags before any
+        # allocation. Pixel-data offset/byte-count arrays may legitimately
+        # be very large for high-resolution tiled images, so they're
+        # exempt. Both element-count and byte-range caps fire here.
+        if tag not in pixel_array_tags:
+            if count > MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f"IFD entry tag={tag} count={count} exceeds "
+                    f"MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT={MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT}; refusing "
+                    f"to parse possibly malformed TIFF"
+                )
+            if total_size > MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f"IFD entry tag={tag} value size {total_size} bytes "
+                    f"exceeds MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES={MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES}; "
+                    f"refusing to parse possibly malformed TIFF"
+                )
+
         if total_size <= inline_max:
             value = _read_value(data, value_area_offset, type_id, count, bo)
         else:
@@ -475,6 +523,16 @@ def parse_ifd(data: bytes | memoryview, offset: int,
                 ptr = struct.unpack_from(f'{bo}Q', data, value_area_offset)[0]
             else:
                 ptr = struct.unpack_from(f'{bo}I', data, value_area_offset)[0]
+            # Bound-check the value range against file length before
+            # _read_value runs. ptr and total_size are both >= 0 (ptr is
+            # an unsigned uint32/uint64, total_size is count*type_size),
+            # so we only need the upper bound.
+            if ptr + total_size > data_len:
+                raise ValueError(
+                    f"IFD entry tag={tag} value range "
+                    f"[{ptr}, {ptr + total_size}) exceeds file length "
+                    f"{data_len}"
+                )
             value = _read_value(data, ptr, type_id, count, bo)
 
         entries[tag] = IFDEntry(tag=tag, type_id=type_id, count=count, value=value)
diff --git a/xrspatial/geotiff/tests/test_parse_ifd_bounds.py b/xrspatial/geotiff/tests/test_parse_ifd_bounds.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..34c80da7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/xrspatial/geotiff/tests/test_parse_ifd_bounds.py
@@ -0,0 +1,248 @@
+"""Bounds-checks for IFD `count` and value range against file length.
+
+These tests cover the S2 audit finding: a crafted TIFF with a huge
+`count` on a non-pixel tag could force `parse_ifd` to ask
+`struct.unpack_from` for a multi-million-element tuple, allocating
+hundreds of MB to GB of memory before the parser ever returns. The fix
+adds three guards to `parse_ifd`:
+
+1. A hard cap (`MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT`) on `count` for non-pixel tags.
+2. A hard cap (`MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES`) on `count * type_size` for
+   non-pixel tags. Catches large-itemsize abuse (e.g. DOUBLE arrays)
+   where the count alone may pass.
+3. A bounds check that `value_offset + count * type_size <= len(data)`
+   before `_read_value` is called, for any tag with a non-inline value.
+
+Legitimate large pixel-array tags (TileOffsets, StripOffsets, etc.)
+must still parse without raising.
+
+Tests monkeypatch the cap constants down to small values where helpful,
+so they exercise the limits with tiny in-memory payloads instead of
+allocating hundreds of MB in CI.
+"""
+from __future__ import annotations
+
+import struct
+
+import pytest
+
+from xrspatial.geotiff import _header
+from xrspatial.geotiff._dtypes import DOUBLE, LONG, SHORT
+from xrspatial.geotiff._header import (
+    MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES,
+    MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT,
+    TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH,
+    TAG_TILE_BYTE_COUNTS,
+    TAG_TILE_OFFSETS,
+    parse_header,
+    parse_ifd,
+)
+
+
+def _build_tiff(
+    entries: list[tuple[int, int, int, bytes]],
+    tail_padding: int = 0,
+    external_payloads: list[tuple[int, bytes]] | None = None,
+) -> bytes:
+    """Build a classic little-endian TIFF with the given IFD entries.
+
+    Each entry is `(tag, type_id, count, value_field_bytes)` where
+    `value_field_bytes` is exactly 4 bytes that go into the IFD entry's
+    value/offset slot.
+
+    `external_payloads` is an optional list of `(absolute_offset,
+    bytes)` pairs that will be written to the file at those positions.
+    Used to place legal data referenced by an entry's value pointer.
+    """
+    bo = '<'
+    n = len(entries)
+    # Layout: header (8) + IFD (2 + n*12 + 4) + padding + payloads.
+    ifd_offset = 8
+    ifd_size = 2 + n * 12 + 4
+
+    end_of_ifd = ifd_offset + ifd_size
+    file_size = end_of_ifd + tail_padding
+    if external_payloads:
+        for off, payload in external_payloads:
+            file_size = max(file_size, off + len(payload))
+
+    buf = bytearray(file_size)
+    buf[0:2] = b'II'
+    struct.pack_into(f'{bo}H', buf, 2, 42)  # magic
+    struct.pack_into(f'{bo}I', buf, 4, ifd_offset)  # first IFD offset
+
+    struct.pack_into(f'{bo}H', buf, ifd_offset, n)
+    for i, (tag, type_id, count, value_bytes) in enumerate(entries):
+        eo = ifd_offset + 2 + i * 12
+        struct.pack_into(f'{bo}H', buf, eo, tag)
+        struct.pack_into(f'{bo}H', buf, eo + 2, type_id)
+        struct.pack_into(f'{bo}I', buf, eo + 4, count)
+        assert len(value_bytes) == 4, "value field must be exactly 4 bytes"
+        buf[eo + 8:eo + 12] = value_bytes
+    # next IFD offset = 0
+    struct.pack_into(f'{bo}I', buf, ifd_offset + 2 + n * 12, 0)
+
+    if external_payloads:
+        for off, payload in external_payloads:
+            buf[off:off + len(payload)] = payload
+
+    return bytes(buf)
+
+
+def test_count_overflow_rejected():
+    """A non-pixel tag with count > MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT must raise."""
+    bad_count = MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT + 1
+    # Tag IMAGE_WIDTH is not in the pixel-array exemption set.
+    # value pointer = 0 is irrelevant; the count check fires first.
+    data = _build_tiff(
+        entries=[(TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH, LONG, bad_count, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')],
+        tail_padding=64,
+    )
+    header = parse_header(data)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="count"):
+        parse_ifd(data, header.first_ifd_offset, header)
+
+
+def test_byte_size_overflow_rejected_with_legal_count(monkeypatch):
+    """A count under the count cap but bytes over the byte cap raises.
+
+    Monkeypatches both caps to small values so the test exercises the
+    byte-cap path independently of the count-cap path. With count=33
+    and DOUBLE (8 bytes), bytes=264 > 256 (byte cap) while count < 100
+    (count cap), so only the byte cap fires.
+    """
+    monkeypatch.setattr(_header, 'MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT', 100)
+    monkeypatch.setattr(_header, 'MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES', 256)
+
+    count = 33
+    data = _build_tiff(
+        entries=[(TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH, DOUBLE, count, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')],
+        tail_padding=64,
+    )
+    header = parse_header(data)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="bytes exceeds MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES"):
+        parse_ifd(data, header.first_ifd_offset, header)
+
+
+def test_byte_cap_fires_at_default_values():
+    """Default caps catch a realistic large-itemsize abuse.
+
+    With default caps (count=100K, bytes=256KiB), a non-pixel DOUBLE
+    tag with count=32_770 has bytes=262_160 > 262_144 (256KiB) but
+    count is well under 100K. This proves the byte cap is independently
+    useful at production values, not just under monkeypatch.
+    """
+    count = (MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES // 8) + 2
+    assert count < MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT, (
+        "test must exercise byte cap, not count cap"
+    )
+    data = _build_tiff(
+        entries=[(TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH, DOUBLE, count, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')],
+        tail_padding=64,
+    )
+    header = parse_header(data)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="bytes exceeds MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES"):
+        parse_ifd(data, header.first_ifd_offset, header)
+
+
+def test_value_offset_past_eof_rejected():
+    """A non-inline value range that extends past EOF must raise."""
+    # 5 LONGs = 20 bytes -> non-inline. Place value pointer at a spot
+    # such that ptr + 20 > file_size.
+    count = 5
+    file_size_target = 200
+    ptr = file_size_target - 4  # only 4 bytes follow, need 20
+    value_bytes = struct.pack('<I', ptr)
+    data = _build_tiff(
+        entries=[(TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH, LONG, count, value_bytes)],
+        tail_padding=file_size_target - (8 + 2 + 12 + 4),
+    )
+    assert len(data) == file_size_target
+    header = parse_header(data)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError, match="exceeds file length"):
+        parse_ifd(data, header.first_ifd_offset, header)
+
+
+def test_pixel_array_tag_exemption(monkeypatch):
+    """Pixel-array tags bypass both caps; a tiny lowered cap proves it.
+
+    Monkeypatches both caps to 10 so the test exercises the exemption
+    without allocating large buffers. With non-pixel tags, count=11
+    would raise; with TileOffsets it must pass.
+    """
+    monkeypatch.setattr(_header, 'MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT', 10)
+    monkeypatch.setattr(_header, 'MAX_IFD_ENTRY_BYTES', 16)
+
+    count = 11
+    type_size = 4  # LONG
+    payload_size = count * type_size
+    # Place payload right after the IFD with 2 entries.
+    payload_offset = 8 + 2 + 12 * 2 + 4
+    payload = b'\x00' * payload_size
+    value_bytes = struct.pack('<I', payload_offset)
+
+    width_value = struct.pack('<I', 1024)
+    data = _build_tiff(
+        entries=[
+            (TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH, LONG, 1, width_value),
+            (TAG_TILE_OFFSETS, LONG, count, value_bytes),
+        ],
+        external_payloads=[(payload_offset, payload)],
+    )
+    header = parse_header(data)
+    # Should not raise.
+    ifd = parse_ifd(data, header.first_ifd_offset, header)
+    assert ifd.entries[TAG_TILE_OFFSETS].count == count
+
+
+def test_count_cap_fires_for_non_pixel_tag_under_lowered_caps(monkeypatch):
+    """Count cap fires before any allocation when lowered for the test."""
+    monkeypatch.setattr(_header, 'MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT', 10)
+
+    bad_count = 11
+    data = _build_tiff(
+        entries=[(TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH, LONG, bad_count, b'\x00\x00\x00\x00')],
+        tail_padding=64,
+    )
+    header = parse_header(data)
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError,
+                       match=r"count=11 exceeds MAX_IFD_ENTRY_COUNT=10"):
+        parse_ifd(data, header.first_ifd_offset, header)
+
+
+def test_normal_tag_with_legal_count_passes():
+    """Regression: a small, legal IFD parses cleanly."""
+    width_value = struct.pack('<I', 256)
+    height_value = struct.pack('<I', 256)
+    data = _build_tiff(
+        entries=[
+            (TAG_IMAGE_WIDTH, LONG, 1, width_value),
+            (257, LONG, 1, height_value),  # ImageLength
+        ],
+    )
+    header = parse_header(data)
+    ifd = parse_ifd(data, header.first_ifd_offset, header)
+    assert ifd.width == 256
+    assert ifd.height == 256
+
+
+def test_short_count_at_cap_still_passes_for_pixel_tag():
+    """TileByteCounts of SHORT type still passes for pixel-array tags.
+
+    Smoke test that the exemption applies regardless of element type.
+    """
+    count = 1000
+    type_size = 2  # SHORT
+    payload_size = count * type_size
+    payload_offset = 8 + 2 + 12 + 4
+    payload = b'\x00' * payload_size
+    value_bytes = struct.pack('<I', payload_offset)
+    data = _build_tiff(
+        entries=[
+            (TAG_TILE_BYTE_COUNTS, SHORT, count, value_bytes),
+        ],
+        external_payloads=[(payload_offset, payload)],
+    )
+    header = parse_header(data)
+    ifd = parse_ifd(data, header.first_ifd_offset, header)
+    assert ifd.entries[TAG_TILE_BYTE_COUNTS].count == count